Research Ethics
Research ethics is a type of applied or professional ethics that addresses the questions, dilemmas, and issues related to the ethical conduct of scientific research. Topics that fall within the domain of research ethics range from practical problems, such as assigning authorship, to more abstract questions, such as resolving conflicts between normative principles. (Resnik, D.B. (2018). Research Ethics. In International Encyclopedia of Ethics).
Scandals such as falsified and fabricated data, conflict of interest in clinical trials and abuse and exploitation of human and animal subjects drove the development of the discipline of ethics research.
Oxford English Dictionary defines ethics as the codes of conduct or moral principles recognized in a particular profession, sphere of activity, relationship, or other context or aspect of human life. These codes of conduct may vary across societies and countries.
Further reading
To support individual and course learning on this topic, explore recommended resources below. The databases offer access to varied publications including journals, books and technical reports.
The International Encyclopedia of Ethics by ISBN: 9781444367072Publication Date: 2013-02-15The International Encyclopedia of Ethics is arranged across fully cross-referenced volumes including a comprehensive index; Provides clear definitions and explanations of all areas of ethics including the topics, movements, arguments, and key figures in Normative Ethics, Metaethics, and Practical Ethics; Covers the major philosophical and religious traditions.
- Ethical Codes & Research StandardsDeveloped by Office for Human Research Protections, which provides leadership in the protection of the rights, welfare, and wellbeing of subjects involved in research conducted or supported by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
- Research Integrity: An Introduction for ResearchersThis 45 minutes self paced, online course aims to give researchers an overview of the main areas in both research ethics and publication ethics.
- Sage Research Methods Core This link opens in a new windowWith more than 1000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos by world-leading academics from across the social sciences, SAGE Research Methods supports research at all levels by providing material to guide users through the research process.
In Sage Research Methods Core Collection database, access such publications as The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research Ethics; Covert Research: The Art, Politics and Ethics of Undercover Fieldwork; Planning Ethically Responsible Research and more.
Planning Ethically Responsible Research by ISBN: 9781452202594Publication Date: 2012-12-26The book offers practical guidance to researchers and graduate students to understand ethical concerns within real-life research situations, satisfy federal regulations governing human research, and work with the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB). It includes useful tools: detailed instructions on development of an effective IRB protocol; methods for handling issues of consent, privacy, confidentiality and deception; ways to assess risk and benefit to optimize research outcomes; and how to respect the needs of vulnerable research populations.
- ScienceDirect This link opens in a new windowWith high-quality journals, books and reference content in major scientific disciplines, the ScienceDirect platform offers access across topics and disciplines.
Over time, ethical codes and research standards have been established to define ethical behavior in the conduct of research that involves human subjects. Many professional organizations have established codes that govern conduct around research. The Nuremburg Code, established in 1948, grew from atrocities in human research conducted in Nazi Germany. Though not officially accepted as law by any nation or as official ethics guidelines by any association, it is considered an important document in the history of clinical research ethics. Others include World Medical Association's Declaration of Helsinki, a statement of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, including research on identifiable human material and data; National Research Act, signed into law in the U.S in 1974, creating the National Commission for the protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, which identified basic principles of research conduct and ways to ensure the principles were followed; and the Belmont Report that summarized the three ethical principles that should guide human research: respect for persons; beneficence; justice.
The Nuremburg Code and the related Declaration of Helsinki influenced the drafting of regulations promoted by the United States Department of Health and Human Services to ensure ethical treatment of human research subjects, now codified in Part 46 of Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations, and known as the Common Rule.
Some of the widely accepted pillars of ethical behavior within the scientific community include:
- confidentiality, anonymity, informed consent, voluntary participation, and disclosure of the purpose of study to participants
- disclosure of how study data is analyzed and reported
Further reading
Integrity in Scientific Research: Creating an Environment That Promotes Responsible Conduct. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2002. 2, Integrity in Research. National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Assessing Integrity in Research Environments. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208714/.
Fostering Integrity in Research. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2017 Apr 11. 9, Identifying and Promoting Best Practices for Research Integrity. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Policy and Global Affairs; Committee on Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Public Policy; Committee on Responsible Science. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK475944/.
Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) resources from the US Dept of Health & Human Services, Office of Research Integrity. Available from https://ori.hhs.gov/rcr-objectives-delphi-study.
History of Medical Ethics by R. Baker, in Editor(s): Ruth Chadwick, Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics (Second Edition), Academic Press, 2012,
Pages 61-69.
Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics by ISBN: 9780123739322Publication Date: 2012-01-10The Four Volume Set addresses both the physiological and the psychological aspects of human behavior. It is an all-encompassing reference providing a comprehensive and definitive review of the field. A broad and inclusive table of contents ensures detailed investigation of historical and theoretical material as well as in-depth analysis of current issues. Chapter fall into a subject category including Applied Ethics; Bioethics; Computers and Information Management; Economics/Business; Environmental Ethics; Ethics and Politics; Legal; Medical Ethics; Philosophy/Theories; Social; and Social/Media.
The Ethical Algorithm by ISBN: 1705237258Publication Date: 20201 online resource (1 sound file).
Understanding and improving the science behind the algorithms that run our lives is rapidly becoming one of the most pressing issues of this century. Traditional fixes, such as laws, regulations, and watchdog groups, have proven woefully inadequate. Reporting from the cutting edge of scientific research, The Ethical Algorithm offers a new approach: a set of principled solutions based on the emerging and exciting science of socially aware algorithm design. Michael Kearns and Aaron Roth explain how human principles can better be embedded into machine code-without halting the advance of data-driven scientific exploration.
What are Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)?
An Institutional Review Board, or IRB, reviews research studies to ensure that they comply with applicable regulations, meet commonly accepted ethical standards, follow institutional policies, and adequately protect research participants. The IRB has the authority to approve, disapprove or require modifications of research studies. IRBs are also referred to as Independent Review Boards or Ethics Review Committees.
Northwestern Institutional Review Board(IRB) office.
- Access a new comprehensive educational tool in MyHR Learn, the Navigating Human Research Ethics & Regulatory Review course, which "offers an overview of the most salient topics in human research protections along with tips on conducting that work in the context of Northwestern University." Login with your Northwestern NetID to access the course’s 11 modules. Please note that this optional course is intended to support general IRB education and does NOT satisfy the Northwestern human research protections training requirements.
- Human research protections training.
Northwestern Research Integrity office.
Other Regulatory Agencies.
Further reading
What are IRBs? A 45 minutes lesson by Office for Human Research Protections, it explains the purpose and membership requirements of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). This lesson focuses on the Revised Common Rule (or 2018 Requirements) that became effective in 2018.
Human Research Protection Program (HRPP) Resources - a compilation of educational resources tailored for different roles in human subjects research.
Institutional Review Board Approval as an Educational Tool. This editorial article discusses "the critical functions of IRBs and how the IRB application processes can promote learning, particularly regarding clarity of writing, formulating research questions, and the ethical imperatives of research". (Balon, R., Guerrero, A.P.S., Coverdale, J.H. et al. Institutional Review Board Approval as an Educational Tool. Acad Psychiatry 43, 285–289 (2019).)
Ethical Practices: Institutional Oversight and Enforcement. This article provides an overview of the history, development and regulations, composition and performance, hopes and hindrances related to the committees in the United States charged with the protection of human subjects in research studies. (Sophia F. Dziegielewski, Ethical Practices: Institutional Oversight and Enforcement,Editor(s): James D. Wright, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), Elsevier, 2015,Pages 48-52.)
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences by ISBN: 9780080970875Publication Date: 2015-02-17Available in both print and online editions, it comprises over 3,900 articles, commissioned by 71 Section Editors, and includes 90,000 bibliographic references as well as comprehensive name and subject indexes. Provides authoritative, foundational, interdisciplinary knowledge across the wide range of behavioral and social sciences fields Discusses history, current trends and future directions Topics are cross-referenced with related topics and each article highlights further reading
100 Questions (and Answers) about Research Ethics by ISBN: 9781506348704Publication Date: 2018-01-11100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Ethics is an essential guide for graduate students and researchers in the social and behavioral sciences. It identifies ethical issues that individuals must consider when planning research studies as well as provides guidance on how to address ethical issues that might arise during research implementation. Questions such as assessing risks, to protecting privacy and vulnerable populations, obtaining informed consent, using technology including social media, negotiating the IRB process, and handling data ethically are covered. Acting as a resource for students developing their thesis and dissertation proposals and for junior faculty designing research, this book reflects the latest U.S. federal research regulations to take effect mostly in January 2018.
From Ethical Review to Responsible Research and Innovation by ISBN: 1119318424Publication Date: 2016-06-25This book presents the main works of Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) from a moral responsibility point of view, for which it calls upon no fewer than 10 understandings to bring out those which are positive and to support an interpretive and combinatory pluralism.- Nature MethodsPublication Date: 2004-The journal is aimed at a broad, interdisciplinary audience of academic and industry researchers actively involved in laboratory practice. It provides researchers with new tools to conduct their research and places a strong emphasis on immediate practical relevance and potential to advance new biological applications.
Principles and Practice of Clinical Research by ISBN: 9780123821676Publication Date: 2012-07-10The third edition of this innovative work again provides a unique perspective on the clinical discovery process by providing input from experts within the NIH on the principles and practice of clinical research. Molecular medicine, genomics, and proteomics have opened vast opportunities for translation of basic science observations to the bedside through clinical research. As an introductory reference it gives clinical investigators in all fields an awareness of the tools required to ensure research protocols are well designed and comply with the rigorous regulatory requirements necessary to maximize the safety of research subjects. Complete with sections on the history of clinical research and ethics, copious figures and charts, and sample documents it serves as an excellent companion text for any course on clinical research and as a must-have reference for seasoned researchers.- Research Ethics byPublication Date: 2023This resource will help decide whether research is ethical; explain key ethical concepts, such as informed consent and anonymity; and explain the process for gaining ethical approval to conduct research.
Scientific Integrity and Ethics in the Geosciences by ISBN: 9781119067825Publication Date: 2017-10-20Scientific Integrity and Ethics in the Geosciences acquaints readers with the fundamental principles of scientific ethics and shows how they apply to everyday work in the classroom, laboratory, and field. Resources are provided throughout to help discuss and implement principles of scientific integrity and ethics.
- Federal Scientific Integrity Policies: A Primer (R46614)This report, prepared by the Congressional Research Service, provides an overview of scientific integrity and discusses selected issues for congressional consideration.
- Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and PracticesThe book is designed to introduce doctoral and graduate students to the process of scientific research in the social sciences, business, education, public health, and related disciplines.
Databases
- SAGE Knowledge This link opens in a new windowcross media platform of book, business case, reference and video titles within social sciences.
- Sage Research Methods Core This link opens in a new windowSAGE Research Methods supports research at all levels by providing material to guide users through every step of the research process. It has more than 1000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos by world-leading academics from across the social sciences.