Abstract: A framework for R&D project ranking that can help a firm improve its competitive advantage is presented. The framework integrates elements of previously published R&D project ranking systems and was refined through practitioner evaluation and utilization. Through use of the framework, an organization can increase the objectivity, accountability, and transparency of its strategic decision-making process. Real world tradeoffs are accounted for by evaluating projects in terms of the following perspectives: reasonableness, attractiveness, responsiveness, competitiveness, and innovativeness. Each perspective is represented by multiple criteria measured via descriptive values distributed over a standardized scale. The framework is operationalized by a toolset consisting of a project evaluation form, pairwise comparison matrices, a weighted scoring model, a scorecard, and radar diagrams. A firm customizes the framework by using pairwise comparison matrices to establish relative weights that reflect the firm's unique objectives and competitive environment. Reviewers score each project's criteria on evaluation forms. Weights and criteria scores are entered onto the scorecard through which the scoring model produces a rank-ordered project list. Radar diagrams display how well a firm's portfolio matches its R&D goals. These framework artifacts produce a decision reasoning audit trail that an organization can use to improve its ranking process.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2008.919725

keywords: {decision making;organisational aspects;research and development;R&D project ranking system;firm portfolio;pairwise comparison matrices;radar diagrams;strategic decision-making process;weighted scoring model;Decision making;Delay;Displays;Portfolios;Project management;Radar;Research and development;Research and development management;Resource management;Technology management;Competitive advantage;R&D project portfolio management;R&D project ranking;conceptual framework;multicriteria decision making (MCDM);multiple perspectives}

Abstract: Systems engineering of products, processes, and organizations requires tools and techniques for system decomposition and integration. A design structure matrix (DSM) provides a simple, compact, and visual representation of a complex system that supports innovative solutions to decomposition and integration problems. The advantages of DSMs vis-a-vis alternative system representation and analysis techniques have led to their increasing use in a variety of contexts, including product development; project planning, project management, systems engineering, and organization design. This paper reviews two types of DSMs, static and time-based DSMs, and four DSM applications: (1) component-based or architecture DSM, useful for modeling system component relationships and facilitating appropriate architectural decomposition strategies; (2) team-based or organization DSM, beneficial for designing integrated organization structures that account for team interactions; (3) activity-based or schedule DSM, advantageous for modeling the information flow among process activities; and (4) parameter-based (or low-level schedule) DSM, effective for integrating low-level design processes based on physical design parameter relationships. A discussion of each application is accompanied by an industrial example. The review leads to conclusions regarding the benefits of DSMs in practice and barriers to their use. The paper also discusses research directions and new DSM applications, both of which may be approached with a perspective on the four types of DSMs and their relationships.

doi: 10.1109/17.946528

keywords: {product development;project management;systems engineering;analysis techniques;complex system;design structure matrix;information flow;integrated organization structures;organizations;physical design parameter relationships;processes engineering;product development;products engineering;project management;project planning;scheduling;system component relationships modeling;system decomposition;system integration;systems engineering;team interactions;visual representation;Algorithm design and analysis;Clustering algorithms;Design engineering;Industrial relations;Job shop scheduling;Matrix decomposition;Process design;Product development;Project management;Systems engineering and theory}.

Abstract: Projects are important to industry. Project manager (PM) competences are important in project success. Yet, current competence studies largely rely on small-sample, homogenous PM surveys which could suffer from uncontrollable biases and may not be generalizable. Often, the studies disregard industry specificity. We attempt to address these issues by exploring the key competences employers require from PMs across multiple industry sectors. We code the contents of 2306 online project management job advertisements in the U.K., the U.S., Canada, China, India, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore for frequently occurring keywords. Using three-way multidimensional scaling (MDS), we extract six dimensions of competence present in the coded keywords: 1) industry-specific and generic skills over project management knowledge/expertise; 2) project management knowledge/expertise over industry-specific and generic skills; 3) (senior) managerial skills; 4) (positive) personal traits; 5) project management methodology experience and professional qualifications; and 6) risk management over a project life cycle. We find that typically industry puts more weight on generic skills than project management knowledge/expertise, replicating previous PM survey-based results. We believe, however, that the main contribution is our finding that different industry sectors place significantly different levels of salience on the six dimensions. We discuss the practical implications of the results.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2012.2215330

keywords: {employment;personnel;project management;risk management;Canada;China;Hong Kong;India;Malaysia;PM competence;Singapore;UK;US;employer;generic skills;industry-specific skill;managerial skills;multidimensional analysis;online project management job advertisement;personal traits;professional qualifications;project life cycle;project management knowledge-expertise;project management methodology experience;project manager competence;project success;risk management;three-way multidimensional scaling;Education;Humans;Industries;Organizations;Project management;Standards organizations;Stress;Competence salience;industry specificity;multidimensional scaling (MDS);project manager (PM) competences}

Abstract: Errors in requirements specifications have been identified as a major contributor to costly software project failures. It would be highly beneficial if information systems developers could verify requirements by predicting workplace acceptance of a new system based on user evaluations of its specifications measured during the earliest stages of the development project, ideally before building a working prototype. However, conventional wisdom among system developers asserts that prospective users must have direct hands-on experience with at least a working prototype of a new system before they can provide assessments that accurately reflect future usage behavior after workplace implementation. The present research demonstrates that this assumption is only partially true. Specifically, it is true that stable and predictive assessments of a system's perceived ease of use should be based on direct behavioral experience using the system. However, stable and behaviorally predictive measures of perceived usefulness can be captured from target users who have received information about a system's functionality, but have not had direct hands-on usage experience. This distinction is key because, compared to ease of use, usefulness is generally much more strongly linked to future usage intentions and behaviors in the workplace. Two longitudinal field experiments show that preprototype usefulness measures can closely approximate hands-on based usefulness measures, and are significantly predictive of usage intentions and behavior up to six months after workplace implementation. The present findings open the door toward research on how user acceptance testing may be done much earlier in the system development process than has traditionally been the case. Such preprototype user acceptance tests have greater informational value than their postprototype counterparts because they are captured when only a relatively small proportion of project costs have been incurred and there is greater flexibility to modify a new system's design attributes. Implications are discussed for future research to confirm the robustness of the present findings and to better understand the practical potential and limitations of preprototype user acceptance testing.



doi: 10.1109/TEM.2003.822468

keywords: {information systems;information technology;project management;software management;software prototyping;technological forecasting;IT project failure;information systems developers;longitudinal field experiments;new technology implementation;predictive assessments;preprototype user;software project management;technology acceptance model;user acceptance testing;working prototype;Computer errors;Costs;Employment;Management information systems;Project management;Prototypes;Software prototyping;Software systems;Software testing;System testing}

Abstract: Due to the growing concern about the competitiveness of US industry in the international marketplace, several initiatives are now underway to enhance the competitive posture of the nation's firms. Many companies are engaged in assessing ways in which their productivity, product quality, and operations can be improved. A relatively new area of such improvements is business process management (BPM). BPM can be any structured approach used to analyze and continually improve fundamental activities, such as manufacturing, marketing, communications, and other major elements of a company's operation. This paper describes a generic step-by-step method for BPM which encompasses methods employed in industry from incremental improvements to reengineering. To better understand BPM, the authors have conducted a survey of major US companies on their approaches to process quality assessment. This report summarizes the findings of the survey and work with a number of leading companies, and may be useful to quality managers and others involved in total quality management, continuous improvement, or reengineering efforts. Due to the interest in BPM, a number of methods and tools, including software, have been used or developed to aid in its implementation. The authors relate some of these methods and tools to the individual steps of the generic BPM method.

doi: 10.1109/17.387274

keywords: {human resource management;management;product development;quality control;systems re-engineering;US industry competitiveness;activity based costing;analytic hierarchy process;business process management;communications;cyclical success factors;international marketplace;manufacturing;marketing;process quality assessment;product quality;productivity;software tools;total quality management;Business process re-engineering;Companies;Continuous improvement;Lifting equipment;Manufacturing industries;Productivity;Quality assessment;Quality management;Software tools;Total quality management}

Abstract: Many firms struggle with managing a portfolio of multiple interdependent projects. Therefore, practitioners and researchers are eager to learn which factors affect project portfolio success and how it can be increased. However, it takes some time for changes in management practices to reveal their potential. Thus, it is interesting to know how portfolio success can be predicted and what the possible indicators of this eventual success will look like. For this purpose, we propose the concept of management quality, which allows the anticipation of project portfolio success much earlier than the time at which established success criteria become measurable. We conceptualize and empirically validate management quality as a multidimensional construct consisting of information quality, allocation quality, and cooperation quality. We demonstrate the prognostic relevance of management quality to project portfolio success on a longitudinal sample of project portfolios with multiple informants over a time period of two years. Our results show a strong positive influence and thus support the notion of a causal link between management quality and portfolio success.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2012.2200041

keywords: {investment;organisational aspects;project management;quality management;allocation quality;cooperation quality;information quality;management practices;management quality concept;management quality measurement;multidimensional construct;portfolio management;project portfolio success prediction;Context;Organizations;Portfolios;Project management;Reliability;Resource management;Time measurement;Management quality;project management;project portfolio management;project portfolio success}

Abstract: The project management community is actively demonstrating substantial interest in the development of viable methods to assess and improve project management maturity. This interest also underscores the important need to assess project management maturity among industries to provide many organizations a means to benchmark their maturity relative to others. This research provides a snapshot of the current level of project management maturity-among industries based on 42 detailed components of maturity. A survey of 126 organizations reveals the median level of project management maturity is level 2 out of 5 with respect to 36 of the 42 components analyzed. Additionally, this research compares project management maturity between four major industries: professional, scientific and technical services; information; finance and insurance; and manufacturing. We conclude that with few exceptions, there is not a significant difference in project management maturity between industries. These results establish a baseline to support organizational assessments of project management maturity at a component level of analysis. Additionally, these results will support future longitudinal research to monitor the evolution of project management maturity.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2005.861802

keywords: {Capability Maturity Model;organisational aspects;project management;Capability Maturity Model;organizational assessment;project benchmarking;project management community;project management maturity;viable method development;Environmental management;Finance;Industrial relations;Insurance;Management information systems;Management training;Manufacturing industries;Monitoring;Project management;Technology management;Capability maturity model;process improvement;project benchmarking;project management;project management maturity}

Abstract: The research and development project selection decision is concerned with the allocation of resources to a set of proposals for scientific and engineering activities. The project selection and resource allocation process can be viewed as a multiple-criteria decision-making problem, within the context of the long-range and strategic planning process of the firm. The purpose of this paper is explore the applicability of an extension of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) for priority setting and resource allocation in the industrial R&D environment. In this paper, an AHP modeling framework for the R&D project selection decision is developed, and is linked to a spreadsheet model to assist in the ranking of a large number of project alternatives. Next, cost-benefit analysis and integer programming are used to assist in the resource allocation decision. The paper concludes with an evaluation of the suitability of this approach as an expert support system, and directions for future research and testing.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.1987.6498854

Abstract: The value of a project to a client can be measured in part by the level of quality associated with the completed project. Quality is acknowledged to be an important component of project management, but its joint relationship with time and cost previously has not been modeled. This paper introduces the notion of a quality function for individual tasks and uses the functional form of the bivariate normal (after also evaluating a bivariate logistic form), to model quality at the task level. Using real data from two case studies, a translation agency and a software development company, the quality function is specified and incorporated into a mathematical programming model that allows quality to be explicitly considered in project planning and scheduling. An alternative model formulation leads to the creation of quality level curves that enable managers to evaluate the nonlinear tradeoffs between quality, time, and cost for each of the example projects. The results of these analyses lead to specific decisions about the planned values for these three fundamental dimensions at the task level and provide insights for project planning and scheduling that can be gained through improved understanding of the choices and tradeoffs.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2012.2219586


keywords: {DP industry;costing;decision making;language translation;normal distribution;planning;project management;quality function deployment;scheduling;software development management;time management;bivariate logistic form;bivariate normal;cost modeling;mathematical programming model;project management decision making improvement;project planning;quality function;quality level curves;quality modeling;scheduling;software development company;time modeling;translation agency;Logistics;Planning;Project management;Software;Standards;Testing;Time measurement;Mathematical programming;nonlinear optimization;project management;project planning;project scheduling;quality management}

Abstract: The analytic network process (ANP) is presented as a potentially valuable method to support the selection of projects in a research and development (R&D) environment. This paper first discusses the requirements of the R&D project selection problem, which requires the allocation of resources to a set of competing and often disparate project proposals. Among the factors complicating this task is the need to make the decision within the framework of an enterprise's strategic objectives and organizational structure while considering and integrating financial and strategic benefits of each project. The paper discusses the use of the ANP, a general form of Saaty's analytic hierarchy process, as a model to evaluate the value of competing R&D project proposals. A generic ANP model developed by the authors, which includes in its decision levels the actors involved in the decision, the stages of research, categories of metrics, and individual metrics, is presented. The paper concludes with a case study describing the implementation of this model at a small high-tech company, including data based on the actual use of the decision making model

doi: 10.1109/17.985748

keywords: {decision theory;project management;research and development management;strategic planning;R&D project selection;Saaty's analytic hierarchy process;analytic network process;case study;decision levels;decision making model;financial benefits;management;organizational structure;project proposals;resource allocation;small high-tech company;strategic benefits;strategic objectives;Companies;Decision making;Information analysis;Investments;Performance analysis;Project management;Proposals;Research and development;Research and development management;Resource management}

Abstract: We investigate the moderating effect of project complexity on the relationship between leadership competences of project managers and their success in projects. Building on existing studies in leadership and project management, we assess the impact of emotional (EQ), intellectual (IQ), and managerial (MQ) leadership competences on project success in different types of project complexities. A cross-sectional survey using the leadership dimensions questionnaire and project results questions yielded 119 responses, which were assessed for their type and level of complexity, measured as complexity of fact, faith, and interaction. Analysis was done through factor analysis and moderated hierarchical regression analysis. Results show that EQ and MQ are correlated with project success, but are differently moderated by complexity. The relationship between EQ and project success is moderated by complexity of faith. The relationship between MQ and project success is moderated by complexity of fact and faith. Complexity of interaction has a direct effect on project success. Analysis of variance and nonparametric tests showed the means and medians of EQ, IQ, MQ; complexities of faith, fact, and interaction do not significantly vary across different project types. This suggests using these three complexity types as a common language to research and learning across different project types.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2011.2114350

keywords: {project management;regression analysis;cross-sectional survey;factor analysis;hierarchical regression analysis;leadership;project complexities;project management;Complexity theory;Context;Educational institutions;Lead;Organizations;Project management;Uncertainty;Complexity;emotional intelligence;leadership;project management;project success}

Abstract: The turn of the century has seen a rapidly graying population concurrently with increasingly ubiquitous information technology (IT). The elderly population being less familiar with IT implies that issues pertaining to their acceptance of information systems (IS) deserve special attention. However, the IS and gerontology literatures seldom explore IS acceptance among the aged. Attempting to address this gap, a research model is developed by integrating relevant antecedents from previous literature and empirically tested in the context of an e-Government service tailored for senior citizens. Our findings reveal that consistent with previous technology acceptance studies, senior citizens' use intention is driven by their perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the service. Additionally, their Internet safety perception impacts the acceptance of this online financial service. Furthermore, resource savings and self-actualization determine senior citizens' usefulness perception, whereas computer anxiety and computing support are antecedents of perceived ease of use. Of these antecedents, self actualization and computer anxiety appear particularly relevant for the elderly as compared to younger working professionals in most previous literature for whom these antecedents have not been important. The study contributes by providing an integrative model of IS acceptance among the aged, which may facilitate theory development and practice

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2006.883710

keywords: {Internet;financial data processing;government data processing;human factors;public administration;public information systems;technology transfer;Internet safety perception;central provident fund e-withdrawal;computer anxiety;e-government services;information systems;online financial service;senior citizens;ubiquitous information technology;Aging;Context modeling;Context-aware services;Electronic government;Gerontology;Information systems;Information technology;Senior citizens;Testing;Web and internet services;E-government;information systems acceptance;perceived ease of use;perceived usefulness;senior citizens}

Abstract: A study was conducted of 97 projects identified as failures by the projects' managers or parent organizations. Using the project implementation profile, a set of managerially controllable factors is identified as associated with project failure. The factors differed according to three contingency variables: the precise way in which failure was defined; the type of project, and the stage of the project in its life cycle. Implications for project management and for future research on failed projects are discussed. The results demonstrated empirical justification for a multidimensional construct of project failure, encompassing both internal efficiency and external effectiveness aspects. The fact that the critical factors associated with failure depended on the way in which failure is defined suggests that it is necessary to know considerably more about how project managers define failure (and success) and, indeed how the parent organization makes judgments on the matter.

doi: 10.1109/17.62322

keywords: {project engineering;project failure;project implementation profile;project management;Decision support systems;Helium;Innovation management;Project management;Technological innovation;Technology management}

Abstract: There have been numerous studies examining the effects of social role theory on negative stereotyping of female managers, including low perceived likeability and unwillingness by subordinates to trust them. These attributions are particularly relevant in the context of “male-dominated” jobs, such as technical disciplines like engineering and project management. We investigated the specific setting of project manager job candidate selection, a professional discipline that has historically been male-dominated, but one that has seen a large rise in female project managers over the past decade. We examined the perceptions of respondents to differences in male and female job candidates based on the critical personal/managerial characteristics of trust and likeability. Using a scenario-based survey questionnaire, we sampled 312 project management personnel and tested subjects' reactions to two candidates for a project management position, employing identical descriptions and language while only changing the candidate's name: Susan or Stan. Our results suggested that, contrary to expectations, respondents' perceptions of the female candidate, Susan, were significantly higher across both managerial dimensions of likeability and trust. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2015.2415251

keywords: {employment;gender issues;organisational aspects;project management;recruitment;critical personal-managerial characteristics;employing identical descriptions;engineering-project management;female managers;gender biases;hiring project managers;low perceived likeability;male-dominated jobs;male-female job candidates;negative stereotyping effects;professional discipline;project manager job candidate selection;social role theory effects;technical disciplines;trust-likeability perceptions;Correlation;Employment;Engineering profession;Industries;Insurance;Organizations;Project management;Gender;project manager;selection;stereotypes}

Abstract: This paper describes a process used to determine critical success factors that are felt to be predictive of successful project management. Full time managers who have had experience with projects were used to generate critical success factors that they felt to be crucial to successful project implementation. Ten factors were discovered that relate well to previous theoretical formulations in the literature. In addition, these ten factors have been linked together in an interdependent quasi-sequential framework. This research has provided the basis for developing a behavioral instrument to be used as a diagnostic for assessing the status of any project as determined by the ten factor model.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.1987.6498856

keywords: {critical success factors;implementation;project implementation profile;project management;project monitoring;resource utilization},

Abstract: The loss of critical human skills that are either nonreplenishable or take very long periods of time to reconstitute impacts the support of legacy systems ranging from infrastructure, military, and aerospace to information technology. Many legacy systems must be supported for long periods of time because they are prohibitively expensive to replace. Loss of critical human skills is a problem for legacy system support organizations as they try to understand and mitigate the effects of an aging workforce with highly specialized low-demand skill sets. Existing literature focuses on workers that have skills that are obsolete and therefore need to be retrained to remain employable; alternatively, this paper addresses the system support impacts due to the lack of workers with the required skill set. This paper develops a model for forecasting the loss of critical human skills and the impact of that loss on the future cost of system support. The model can be used to support business cases for system replacement. A detailed case study of a legacy control system from the chemical manufacturing industry is provided and managerial insights associated with the support of the system drawn.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2015.2438820

keywords: {chemical industry;costing;human factors;human resource management;information technology;personnel;software maintenance;technological forecasting;addressing system support impacts;aging workforce;chemical manufacturing industry;critical human skills loss forecasting;information technology;infrastructure systems;legacy control system;legacy system support organizations;low-demand skill sets;military-aerospace systems;system support future cost;workers lacking problem;Aging;Computational modeling;Maintenance engineering;Numerical models;Organizations;Planning;Diminishing manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS);legacy systems;life-cycle cost;obsolescence;organizational forgetting;workforce management;workforce planning}

Abstract: Software project managers perceive and report project status. Recognizing that their status perceptions might be wrong and that they may not faithfully report what they believe, leads to a natural question-how different is true software project status from reported status? Here, the authors construct a two-stage model which accounts for project manager errors in perception and bias that might be applied before reporting status to executives. They call the combined effect of errors in perception and bias, project status distortion . The probabilistic model has roots in information theory and uses discrete project status from traffic light reporting. The true statuses of projects of varying risk were elicited from a panel of five experts and formed the model input. The same experts estimated the frequency with which project managers make status errors, while the authors created different bias scenarios in order to investigate the impact of different bias levels. The true status estimates, error estimates, and bias levels allow calculation of perceived and reported status. The results indicate that at the early stage of the development process most software projects are already in trouble, that project managers are overly optimistic in their perceptions, and that executives receive status reports very different from reality, depending on the risk level of the project and the amount of bias applied by the project manager. Key findings suggest that executives should be skeptical of favorable status reports and that for higher risk projects executives should concentrate on decreasing bias if they are to improve the accuracy of project reporting.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2002.807290

keywords: {probability;project management;software development management;accurate software project status reporting;discrete project status;information theory;probabilistic model;project management;project manager errors;reporting bias;reporting distortion;risk level;status errors;traffic light reporting;two-stage model;Computer errors;Frequency estimation;Information theory;Programming;Project management;Risk management;Scheduling;Snow;Software development management;Traffic control}

Abstract: The reluctance of people to report bad news can be a major contributor to the phenomenon of runaway software projects. If senior managers receive bad news sooner, they may be able to prevent runaway software projects through corrective action. Two factors that are known to impact predisposition to report bad news are organizational climate (whether reporting bad news is likely to result in reward or punishment) and information asymmetry (whether hiding bad news is likely to be possible over time). Using matching experiments in an individualistic (United States) and a collectivistic culture (Singapore), this study investigates how the individualism-collectivism dimension of national culture may moderate the impact of organizational climate and information asymmetry on human predisposition to report bad news. The results revealed that individualism appeared to amplify the impact of organizational climate on predisposition to report bad news (compared to collectivism) whereas collectivism appeared to amplify the impact of information asymmetry on predisposition to report bad news (compared to individualism). When deciding on whether to report bad news about software projects, people from an individualistic culture seemed to be more sensitive to organizational climate whereas people from a collectivistic culture seemed to pay greater attention to information asymmetry. These results have useful implications for practice and research involving cross-cultural software project teams. Beyond these implications, these results add a cultural dimension to our existing knowledge on software project management.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2002.808292


keywords: {project management;software management;Singapore;United States;bad news reporting;collectivistic culture;individualism-collectivism dimension;individualistic culture;information asymmetry;national culture;organizational climate;organizational climate impact;runaway software projects;senior managers;software project management;software projects;Cultural differences;Humans;Information systems;Knowledge management;Management information systems;Project management;Statistics}

Abstract: There has been much prescriptive work in project management, exemplified in various "Bodies of Knowledge". However, experience shows some projects overspending considerably. Recently, systemic modeling research into the behavior of large projects explains project oversponds by "systemic" effects and the (sometimes counterintuitive) effect of management actions. However, while this work is becoming more widely known, embedding the lessons in project-management practice is not straightforward. The current prescriptive dominant discourse of project management contains implicit underlying assumptions with which the systemic modeling work clashes, indeed showing how conventional methods can exacerbate rather than alleviate project problems. Exploration of this modeling suggests that for projects that are complex, uncertain, and time-limited, conventional methods might be inappropriate, and aspects of newer methodologies in which the project "emerges" rather than being fully preplanned might be more appropriate. Some of the current literature on project-classification schemes also suggests similar parameters, without the rationale that the systemic modeling provides, thus providing useful backup to this analysis. The eventual aim of this line of work is to enable project managers to choose effective ways to manage projects based on understanding and model-based theory.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2005.856572

keywords: {knowledge management;organisational aspects;project management;bodies of knowledge;model-based theory;prescriptive work;project failures;project management;project-classification schemes;systemic effects;systemic modeling;Accreditation;Costs;Engineering management;Failure analysis;Polarization;Portable media players;Project management;Scheduling;Time factors;Project failures;project management theory;systemic modeling}

Abstract: There have been many attempts to discover the critical factors that can indicate the success or failure of R&D projects and new product introductions. Because of the large number of studies that exist, the authors undertook an extensive review of the germane literature to find whether a general agreement exists about the factors leading to success or failure in new product development and R&D projects. The review shows first that even with a conservative approach to listing significant factors, the list is very long. Second, comparing the factors across studies demonstrates that different authors have found that the magnitude of significance and the direction of influence vary. Third, given the differences in context, the meaning of similar factors may also vary. The contradictory findings lead us to propose a contingency framework for the new product and R&D project models. This framework consists of a contingency cube with three contextual dimensions. Based on this framework, we propose a set of propositions. We conclude this paper with a discussion of the implications of a contingent approach for both researchers and managers in the area of management of new products and R&D projects

doi: 10.1109/17.618169

keywords: {product development;project management;research and development management;R&D project failure;R&D project success;R&D projects;contextual framework;contingency cube;contingency framework;contingent approach;management;new product innovation;project success factors;Business;Context modeling;Contingency management;Costs;Product development;Project management;Research and development;Research and development management;Technological innovation;Uncertainty},

Abstract: Cross-functional teams are often seen as key for innovation projects. At the same time, functional diversity also introduces conflict, which may hinder a team's optimal performance. Most of the existing literature focuses on resolving and preventing these conflicts; however, conflict alone fails to explain why the contribution of these teams to performance is found to be absent in certain types of firms. This paper investigates the moderating role of organizational context on the relationship between cross-functional teams and performance. A multilevel sample of 142 projects in 95 firms is used to demonstrate that cross-functionality contributes to the performance of innovation projects in more functionally organized firms, with a separate innovation unit, and above-average levels of organizational connectedness. Other types of organizations may want to reconsider the use of cross-functional teams for their innovation projects.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2014.2361623

keywords: {innovation management;team working;cross-functional innovation teams;cross-functional performance;firms;functional diversity;functionally organized firms;innovation projects;innovation unit;organizational connectedness;organizational context;team optimal performance;Collaboration;Context;Industries;Manufacturing;Organizations;Standards organizations;Technological innovation;Cross-functional team;innovation team;multi-level study;organizational context},
URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6939710&isnumber=7015639

Abstract: Previous research has shown uncertainty reduction to be critical in the fuzzy front end of the innovation process, but little attention has been given to the equally important concept of equivocality, although it is a defining characteristic of many front-end projects. To address this research gap, this paper report the results from a longitudinal, multiple case study of four large companies oriented to both product and process innovation. First, our results show that both uncertainty and equivocality is more effectively reduced in successful front-end projects than in unsuccessful ones. Second, the negative consequences of equivocality appear more critical to front-end performance than the consequences following uncertainty. Third, our results show that uncertainty and equivocality are reduced sequentially in successful projects and simultaneously in unsuccessful projects. Finally, uncertainty and equivocality takes longer time to reduce in process innovation projects than in product innovation projects, which is a consequence of the systemic nature of process innovation. Altogether, these findings provide strong implications for managing front-end projects more proficiently.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2010.2095017

keywords: {fuzzy set theory;innovation management;project management;equivocality;fuzzy front end performance;process innovation project;product innovation;uncertainty management;uncertainty reduction;Complexity theory;Industries;Innovation management;Interviews;Metals;Technological innovation;Uncertainty;Equivocality;fuzzy front end;predevelopment;process innovation;product innovation;uncertainty}

Abstract: An improved scoring tool for research and development (R&D) project evaluation and selection is presented that ranks project alternatives based on the criteria of relevance, risk, reasonableness, and return. The scoring algorithm explicitly incorporates tradeoffs among the evaluation criteria and calculates a relative measure of project value by taking into account the fact that value is a function of both merit and cost. Implementation of the selection method in a federal research laboratory is discussed. A comprehensive overview of the R&D project selection literature is included

doi: 10.1109/17.759144

keywords: {PERT;project management;research and development management;R&D project-selection scoring tool;evaluation criteria;federal research laboratory;project alternatives ranking;project evaluation;project reasonableness;project relevance;project return;project risk;research and development;Decision support systems;Dynamic programming;Integer linear programming;Linear programming;Mathematical programming;Portfolios;Research and development;Resource management;Risk analysis;Utility programs}

Abstract: This paper summarizes the first phase of the Stanford Innovation Project, a long-term study of U.S. industrial innovation. As part of this initial phase, begun in 1982, two surveys were conducted: 1) an open-ended survey of 158 new products in the electronics industry, followed by 2) a structured survey of 118 of the original products. Both surveys used a pairwise comparison methodology. Our research identified eight broad areas that appear to be important for new product success in a high-technology environment: 1) market knowledge gained through frequent and intense customer interaction, which leads to high benefit-to-cost products; 2) and 3) planning and coordination of the new product process, especially the R&D phase; 4) emphasis on marketing and sales; 5) management support for the product throughout the development and launch stages; 6) the contribution margin of the product; 7) early market entry; 8) proximity of the new product technologies and markets to the existing strengths of the developing unit. Based on these results, a preliminary model of the new product process is proposed in the concluding section. There is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to manage than the creation of a new system. Niccolo Machiavelli.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.1984.6447537

keywords: {Computers;Consumer electronics;Electronics industry;Interviews;Marketing and sales;Technological innovation}

Abstract: Multiple criteria scoring models have been suggested for use in evaluating competing research and development project proposals. This model form, more than any other, affords the decision maker the opportunity to combine, in exacting fashion, both qualitative and quantitative factors that affect his decisions. To date, however, the project scoring models that have appeared in the R&D literature contain limitations that have caused research management to turn to economic analysis and mathematical programming models of project selection. These other models, while valuable, are severely limited in their ability to consider qualitative criteria important to the evaluation of research. This paper identifies some of the shortcomings present in standard scoring model formulations of the project selection problem and then defines a new form of scoring model, which not only overcomes existing limitations but also exhibits several qualities desirable in a prescriptive model. Literature study suggests that two difficulties are in large part responsible for an observed lack of managerial interest in the development and use of multiple criteria scoring models. First, the scoring model is often thought of as being considerably less accurate in its ability to process data than rate of return analysis or mathematical programming approaches to project selection. Second, because of lack of explicit model structure and due to the rather arbitrary manner in which previous scoring models have been presented, it is nearly impossible to prescribe how to construct an acceptable model for a specific environment. Described herein is a scoring model defined in terms of the statistical regularities of a given research environment, which compares favorably in accuracy and sensitivity to estimation error with other more widely accepted models of project evaluation. An analytical method for model design and verification is defined and discussed in terms of the following steps: 1) selecti- n of evaluation criteria; 2) development of performance measures; 3) quantification of the research environment; 4) determination of criteria weights; 5) initial model specification; 6) selection of model objectives; 7) initial model verification; and 8) complete model specification and verification.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.1969.6447060

keywords: {Accuracy;Analytical models;Computational modeling;Data models;Economics;Marketing and sales;Mathematical model},

Abstract: Degree of parallelism is an important factor in workflow process management, because it is useful to accurately estimate the server costs and schedule severs in workflow processes. However, existing methods that are developed to compute degree of parallelism neglect to consider activities with uncertain execution time. In addition, these methods are limited in dealing with the situation where activities in multiple concurrent workflow processes use shared resources. To address the limitations, we propose a new approach to analyzing degree of parallelism for concurrent workflow processes with shared resources. Superior over the existing methods, our approach can compute degree of parallelism for multiple concurrent workflow processes that have activities with uncertain execution time and shared resources. Expectation degree of parallelism is useful to estimate the server costs of the workflow processes, and maximum degree of parallelism can guide managers to allocate severs or virtual machines based on the business requirement. We demonstrate the application of the approach and evaluate the effectiveness in a real-world business scenario.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2016.2621726

keywords: {business data processing;parallel processing;virtual machines;business process management;concurrent timed workflow processes;parallelism degree analysis;servers;shared resources;virtual machines;Analytical models;Business;Computational modeling;Processor scheduling;Servers;Uncertainty;Business process management;Petri net ( $PN$ );degree of parallelism;timed workflow net ( $TWF-Net$ );workflow management}

Abstract: The allocation of limited yet costly police resources is a daily dilemma for police commanders. More than 50% of police department costs go into patrolling operations, which include responding to emergencies and maintaining police presence in patrolling areas. This research aims to address the managerial challenges and tradeoffs that police commanders face when designing patrolling strategies: lessening the economic burden of crime prevention and maintaining high levels of public safety. The proposed framework is implemented through a mathematical framework and simulation to obtain the best patrolling strategies for the Seattle Police Department, and the simulation results show that patrol performance can be improved using the proposed framework.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2016.2634119

keywords: {law administration;police;public administration;resource allocation;security;town and country planning;engineering management model;mathematical framework;patrolling strategy;police commander;police resource allocation;simulation;urban security;Economics;Law enforcement;Mathematical model;Optimization;Resource management;Security;Urban areas;Crimes;evolutionary algorithm;heuristics;multiobjective optimization;patrolling strategies;police;urban security}

Abstract: Systems design involves the determination of interdependent variables. Thus the precedence ordering for the tasks of determining these variables involves circuits. Circuits require planning decisions about how to iterate and where to use estimates. Conventional planning techniques, such as critical path, do not deal with these problems. Techniques are shown which acknowledge these circuits in the design of systems. These techniques can be used to develop an effective engineering plan, showing where estimates are to be used, how design iterations and reviews are handled, and how information flows during the design work. This information flow can be used to determine the consequences of a change in any variable on the rest of the variables in the system, and thus which engineers must be informed and which documents must be changed. From this, a critical path schedule can be developed for implementing the change. This method is ideally suited to an automated design office where data, computer input and output, and communications are all handled through the use of computer terminals and data bases. However, these same techniques can also be effectively used in classical engineering environments.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.1981.6448589

keywords: {design engineering;management science;complex system design;critical path schedule;design structure system;engineering plan;information flow;precedence ordering;Acceleration;Aerodynamics;Batteries;Computers;Personnel;Schedules},
URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6448589&isnumber=6448584

Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among information technology, organizational structure, cross-functional team interaction, and the performance of new product development (NPD). Regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses in a sample of 102 NPD cases. The findings suggest that the degree of investment and training on information technology is positively related to cross-functional team interaction; that when the organizational structure is more decentralized and less formalized, cross-functional team interaction is more favorable; and that cross-functional team interaction is positively related the performance of NPD. This study contributes to the theoretical development of a conceptual model in examining the mediating role of cross-functional team interaction between contextual variables and the outcome of NPD. The empirical evidences support the process-oriented view, and indicate that information technology and organizational structure can deliver a better performance of NPD but do so primarily through improving cross-functional team interaction. This study provides the theory building, explanatory variance, missing in the literature that did not look at the black box of relationships between information technology, organizational structure, and outcome of NPD. Managerial implications and future research directions are discussed.

doi: 10.1109/TEM.2007.906831

keywords: {information management;product development;regression analysis;team working;cross-functional team interaction;information technology;investment;new product development;organizational structure;regression analysis;Buildings;Context modeling;Globalization;Information technology;Investments;Manufacturing;Marketing and sales;Product development;Regression analysis;Testing;Information technology (IT);new product development (NPD);organizational structure;team interaction}